Psychometric analyses and doubly latent multilevel structural equating modeling were conducted. We used Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2012 data provided by 470,745 15-year-old students from 63 economies. ![]() To fill in the gaps, we aimed to (1) scrutinize the reliability and validity of OTL, (2) investigate the multilevel nature of OTL, and (3) explore the relationship among OTL, self-efficacy, and mathematics achievement. ![]() However, there were still unanswered questions regarding OTL’s measurement, analytical level, and relationship with motivational beliefs. The importance of the opportunity to learn (OTL) for mathematics achievement has been extensively researched.
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